The Bikini Mosaic at Villa Romana del Casale, Sicily

 

This is a detail of one of the many floor mosaics to be seen at the fabulous early fourth-century AD Villa Romana del Casale near Piazza Armerina in central Sicily. The villa was palatial in scale and dazzling in its creature comforts and decorations, both on the walls and on the floors. Every important room had figural mosaic floors, while lesser rooms had mosaics of elaborate geometrical or floral motifs.

Throughout the villa, the imagery was light-hearted, with an assortment of amusing motifs popular with patricians: hunting, public entertainments and scenes of putti (naked cherubs, with or without wings) shown in adult occupations.

Athletic contests could involve either men or women. This example is famously the latter, not least because of the precocious appearance of the bikini. Although there were serious Olympic Games for women, we may presume a less lofty motivation for the appearance of this motif in the floor mosaics of an elite villa; it was added later than the rest of the floors in the villa, indicating a patron with specific requirements.

The Late Antique date is obvious in the figural style: although idealised figures would have been appropriate for this athletic topic, we see instead the stiff, stylised figures of the fourth century AD.

The whole mosaic occupies a space 5’7” long (180 cm).

© John Welford

The Appian Way

 

The Appian Way is one of the earliest ancient Roman roads, stretching for more than 700 km from Rome to Brindisi on the south-east coast of Italy.

It was the brainchild of Appius Claudius, a Roman censor, who was blind but had a very acute mind. He realised that goods, travellers, carts and, most important of all, the army could move more quickly over paved roads than unpaved tracks. After his idea was accepted, work began in 312 BC on what would become the most important Roman road.

Appius Claudius personally supervised the workmen and stone-masons and tested the levelness of the blocks that comprise the road with his own bare feet. These blocks, made from volcanic basalt, were arranged in the manner of a mosaic and fitted together so perfectly that they have not been dislodged by traffic or the passage of time. Where the original surface can still be seen, it is possible to see the care with which the road was constructed more than two thousand years ago.

The Romans called this road Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. It ran firstly to Capua before being extended to Brindisi, although Emperor Trajan, several centuries later, would build a branch road to reach Brindisi by an easier route.

Many difficulties had to be overcome in creating the Appian Way. These included marshes, broken ground, and masses of rock that had to be levelled. The engineering skills needed to build this road were highly sophisticated.

In ancient times the road was lined by temples and villas, tombs and monuments. Many historical events are associated with the Appian Way, including the suicide of the great philosopher Seneca, who died at a villa on the Appian Way having slit his wrists on the orders of Emperor Nero. The slave result of Spartacus was put down with great slaughter by the Romans, who crucified 6,000 rebels along the Appian Way in 71 BC.

Although much of the original route has been lost in more recent years, a great deal of the Appian Way has been preserved. This includes a stretch that is the longest straight road in Europe, a distance of 62 km.

© John Welford

 

Roman Leicestershire

The city of Leicester was an important place in Roman Britain, and the countryside around it was settled by people who became Romanized and contributed to the support of the Roman colony.

There was a Celtic settlement at Leicester before the Romans arrived during the first century AD, this being known as “Caer-leirion” or the camp of the Ligore. The name of the river that flowed past the gravel terrace on which these early settlers had their camp was the Leir, although it is now known as the Soar. The name stuck as “Leicester”, the citadel by the Leir, after the Romans left.

Leicester is situated on the Fosse Way, which was the Roman road that ran almost in a straight line (never deviating by more than six miles) between Exeter (to the south-west) and Lincoln (to the north-east). This road marked the boundary of Roman Britain for a time, before the legions pushed further west, and so linked a string of frontier forts and towns. 

A vital town in this push west and north was Chester, near the wild country of Wales, and the road that linked Chester to the oldest Roman town of Colchester, in the south-east, was the Via Devana. Leicester lies at the crossing point of these two important routes. Other important roads in the vicinity were Watling Street (which still forms the boundary between Leicestershire and Warwickshire) and Ermine Street.

At first, the town established by the invaders would have been no more than an earth embankment within which the soldiers (probably of the 9^th and 14^th Legions) pitched their tents, but this later became a regional capital with all the trappings of a Roman “civitas”.

The name used by the Romans was "Ratae Corieltauvorum", or “Ramparts of the Corieltauvi”, this being the name of the local Celtic tribe.

By the third century, Ratae had stone walls, a forum, a basilica, temples, and a large bath-house. Very little remains to be seen of any of this, apart from the bath-house. On one side of the bath-house site is the so-called “Jewry Wall”, although this never had any connection with a Jewish community in Leicester. In fact, this wall, which is about 70 feet long and 30 feet high, is one of the tallest pieces of free-standing Roman masonry in the country and is useful for understanding Roman building methods.

Next to the wall are the excavated foundations of the bath-house, which are free to visit. Alongside, in the Jewry Wall Museum, can be seen a number of items from the Roman period that have been found by archaeologists both here and throughout the city.

Excavations for modern building developments have revealed another “Jewry Wall”, this being a collapsed stretch of wall that had fallen on top of an even earlier wall.

Country living

Beyond the city, a network of villas worked the land, concentrating on food crops for the city and its garrison, and producing wool for export. The villa owners were probably local people who were descended from the original Celtic inhabitants of the area but who had become Romanized and taken Roman citizenship. The estate workers would have included slaves and peasants who lived in circular huts near the villa.

The word “villa” can give the impression of luxurious living, and indeed some Roman villas, lived in by tribal “kings”, were palatial in their size and furnishings. However, most villas in Leicestershire were relatively modest, being sparsely furnished farmhouses together with their outbuildings. There are some examples of mosaic floors and evidence of wall painting, these dating from the later Roman period when some of the owners had acquired wealth from their trading activities.

The Romans brought knowledge of improved farming methods with them, such as heavy ox-drawn ploughs, as well as introducing food crops that would have been new to the British, such as peas and beans. Many sherds of Roman pottery have been discovered that would have been used as a means of giving better structure to the somewhat heavy clay soils that are typical of the lower-lying parts of the county.

During the “pax Romana” up to the late third century, the wealthier inhabitants of Leicestershire would have enjoyed luxuries from abroad that came their way from being part of a European empire. These included wines from Germany and fish paste from Italy, as well as objects such as ivory carvings and stone figurines that were either of religious significance or purely decorative. This was, generally speaking, a safe time in a safe part of the province of “Flavia Caesariensis”, as “Britannica Secunda” became known.

Leicestershire during the decline of Roman Britain

However, it could not last for ever, and the Roman Empire was on the defensive against various threats from the mid third century onwards. There were upheavals at the heart of the Empire and invasions from outside, particularly the Germanic tribes that included the Angles and Saxons. Being in the centre of England, and therefore a long way from trouble, Leicestershire’s inhabitants were not directly affected, although they would doubtless have been aware of the increased troop movements along the Roman roads that criss-crossed the area.

But in the year 410 AD the situation had become so serious that Emperor Honorius had to write to the Roman cities in England, including Leicester, to tell them that they could no longer count on support from Rome and they were now on their own. They had already lost their permanent garrisons in 383, when general Maximus ordered the soldiers to go to other parts of the Empire where their presence was needed, but now any hope of defence was dashed.

The change in Leicestershire was a gradual one, and the ordinary farmer would have noticed little difference in his daily way of life. Not every Roman left the country, and many retired soldiers would have continued to live in the city of Leicester, or on the farms they had bought on their retirement, having married local women and raised families of their own. Romanized Britons continued to exercise law and order through the institutions set up by the Romans and life would have gone on smoothly enough for most people, for some considerable time.

Leicestershire’s Roman legacy was therefore a positive one, with the patterns of farming, trade and civic life established by the Romans being apparent for many centuries to come.

© John Welford

Did you worship Sol Invictus on Sunday?

Have you ever wondered why people go to Church on Sundays, as opposed to any other day of the week, and why Sunday is a “day of rest” even for those who don’t? We have a semi-pagan Roman Emperor to thank!

Constantine, who ruled as Emperor from 306 to 337, is credited as being the first Christian Emperor, the legend being that he had a vision of Christ during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 that convinced him that adopting the Christian religion was the key to victory. With victory won and his pagan enemies put to flight, he and his subjects all became overnight Christians.

However, the story is nothing like as straightforward as that. The word that best defines Constantine is “ambiguous”, and it is impossible to be certain where the borders lay between the Christian and the politician within the person of the Emperor. One thing that is definite, however, is that Constantine’s motivation was always based on the furtherance of his power and the safety of the Empire.

For one thing, Constantine never lost his attachment to the worship of Sol Invictus, the “unconquered Sun”. For him, the God of the Christians was either another name for Sol Invictus or a close relative. Even after he adopted Christianity, Constantine’s coins displayed images of Sol Invictus, not Jesus Christ.

On 7^th March 321 Constantine issued a decree that stated: “On the venerable day of the Sun, let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed”. He did not, however, place restrictions on agricultural work, on the grounds that food production was too important to be interrupted.

There were also political and practical reasons for the choice of Sunday. It was pay day for most workers, and many Christians had already adopted Sunday as their day of worship – although this was far from universal, with Saturday being preferred by Christians in Rome and Alexandria.

Although the Emperor was the most powerful man in the Empire, a wise one always governed – as far as possible - in accordance with the general will of those being governed. The senatorial upper classes, from whom any opposition was most likely to come, were also devotees of Sol Invictus and they were therefore likely to accept a move that recognized the place of their chosen deity alongside that recently adopted by the Emperor. If you rule an Empire can contains both Christians and pagans, and can please both communities, why not do so?

Of course, there were some who objected to the edict and stuck to their previous practice, and even today there are groups such as the Seventh Day Adventists who see the Jewish Sabbath, on Saturday, as being the day laid down in Genesis as the day of rest. However, most Christians see no problem with following the dictate of a Roman Emperor from 1700 years ago. That said, the modern practice of taking two days off as the “weekend” of both Saturday and Sunday does seem to make the debate a somewhat academic one!

© John Welford

The facade of Mshatta Palace

The ruins of Mshatta Palace lie some 30 kms south of Amman, the capital of Jordan. The palace was built during the rule of Caliph al-Walid II in the middle of the 8^th century, which was towards the end of the dominance of the Umayyad dynasty in this region. Mshatta was one of a chain of palaces that stretched from southern Jordan through Palestine and into northeast Syria.

Mshatta Palace covered an area 144 metres square, comprising a mosque, living quarters and central courtyard. There is evidence that the palace was never completed.

The outer stone walls of the complex were richly carved with decorative reliefs, with a substantial portion of the surviving façade having been removed from the site and taken to Berlin in 1903, where it is now on display in the Museum of Islamic Art that forms part of the Pergamon Museum on Museum Island.

A zigzag relief band divides the façade into triangles within which there is a wealth of artistic variation. The main themes are vines and tendrils, within which can be seen various animals, birds and mythical creatures.

There are depictions of birds plucking at grapes, and cattle and lions standing together peacefully, which is an image borrowed from early Byzantine Christian art. Griffins and centaurs can also be seen.

However, the imagery is markedly different on a portion of the wall to one side of what is on display. Here, the decoration comprises plant life only, with no animals to be seen. This is the façade that fronted the mosque part of the Palace, and it therefore obeys the Islamic prohibition on the portrayal of living creatures.

This is a remarkable survival from more than a thousand years ago, although one has to question the morality of taking treasures like this from their country of origin to a museum in central Europe. On the other hand, would the designs have been so well preserved if they had stayed in their original location? This is always a difficult conundrum to solve.


© John Welford

Ancient Rome's Castra Praetoria

The Castra Praetoria was the fortified military camp of the Praetorian Guard, who were the elite force charged with protecting the Emperor of Rome. The Castra stood for nearly 300 years as the physical manifestation of the Guard’s strength.

It originated in 23 CE during the reign of Emperor Tiberius, who was persuaded by Sejanus, Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, that the Guard’s cohorts should have a central base from which to respond rapidly to any sudden emergency.

The Castra was situated on high ground just outside the city walls. It had the pattern of a regular military camp but was permanent, being composed of pink and red brickwork. Later enhancements included improvements to the living quarters and heightening of the external walls.

Notable events that took place at the Castra Praetoria included:

·        In 41 CE, after the assassination of Emperor Caligula, his uncle Claudius spent several days there while the Guard debated his fate and finally agreed to make him the next Emperor.

·        In 54 CE, Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, with the possible assistance of Burrus, the Prefect of the Guard. This was done so that her son Nero could became Emperor, in preference to Britannicus, who was Claudius’s son by a previous marriage. Burrus was able to prove his loyalty to Agrippina by taking Nero to the Castra and gaining the approval of the Guard.

·        In 69 CE Emperor Galba was assassinated and his head was carried around the Castra on a spear while the next Emperor, Otho, was declared his successor.

However, Otho’s reign was a short one and he was killed in battle against the forces of Vitellius. The Praetorian Guard were split between those loyal to Otho and to Vitellius. A siege of the Castra took place and much of it was destroyed.

·        In 193, after the murder of Pertinax, an extraordinary event took place when rival candidates for the imperial throne held what was virtually an auction for the job. The Praetorian Guard, which had become lazy and self-indulgent under Pertinax’s predecessor, Commodus, made it clear that their approval would go to the man who promised them the highest pay. The candidates, Sulpicianus and Didius Julianus, both went to the Castra and stood either side of the external wall. They then shouted their bids across the wall until Sulpicianus was forced to concede to the wealthier man.

This charade so annoyed the citizens of Rome that they laid siege to the Castra, the walls of which proved to be too strong. Hundreds died in the fighting that followed.

When a second siege failed, the citizens cut off the Castra’s water supply, after which the Praetorians charged out of the Castra and created mayhem in the city with a great deal of burning and looting, leaving much of the metropolis in ruin and chaos.

The Castra Praetoria survived until 312, after Constantine’s victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. He marched on Rome, rode to the Castra and decreed its destruction. The walls were torn down brick by brick, with hardly anything left for later archaeologists to explore.

© John Welford

Amenhotep III: Pharaoh of Egypt

There cannot be many people who have not heard of Tutankhamun, the boy pharaoh whose tomb contained a dazzling array of treasures. However, more attention should probably be paid to his grandfather, Amenhotep III, who was pharaoh during a golden age for ancient Egypt, the 18^th dynasty, when it was the most powerful nation on Earth.

Amenhotep reigned for about 60 years, ending in 1352 BC. He increased the wealth of Egypt by controlling the gold mines of Nubia, making himself the world’s richest man, with the result that neighbouring powers were keen to pay tribute to him. He was a consummate politician and diplomat, which ensured the peace of the whole region.

Wealth and security enabled Amenhotep to become Egypt’s most prolific builder of all time, although his reign was long after the Pyramids had been built. He became known as “Monument Man”, with projects such as the temple at Karnak that had walls studded with gold and gems and a statue of himself that was over 20 metres tall.

Amenhotep’s funerary temple, at Kom el-Hatan, was the largest royal temple ever built in Egypt. It was fronted by two statues known as the Colossi of Memnon, and originally contained hundreds more, examples of which have only been discovered relatively recently by archaeologists. This temple must count as the largest sculptural programme in history.

The reign of Amenhotep III was one of peace and prosperity. He well deserved the self-conferred title of “living sun god”, and all subsequent pharaohs sought to model themselves on his legacy.

© John Welford