Philip the Arab, Emperor of Rome

Philip the Arab is so named because his family came from Syria. However, this background does not appear to have affected his behavior in office to any extent – there was nothing noticeably “un-Roman” in how he treated the role of Emperor.

Marcus Julius Philippus was born in around 204 at Shahba in Syria (now in Jordan), a city that he later spent large sums of money on improving and beautifying, and which was renamed Philippopolis as a result.

He became co-prefect alongside his brother Julius Priscus in the year 243. This was an important role, because the Emperor, Gordian III, was aged 18 and had only been in titular charge of the empire since unexpectedly becoming emperor at the age of 13 in 238. The prefects were the people who made most of the decisions.

A military defeat in Syria in February 244 led to Gordian being assassinated, and Philip may have been part of the conspiracy that carried this out. The defeat led to an ignominious peace settlement with Persia that involved the payment of half a million denarii.

Financial problems

As Emperor, Philip was perfectly happy to rule from Rome and do the things that emperors traditionally did, like spending huge sums of money on building projects, particularly in his home city as noted above.

Another huge drain on resources was the lavish celebration in 248 of the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome, which was believed to be in 753 BC.

Philip had to take measures to restore the coffers. One of these was to widen the tax base by including more people in each community who were to be held personally liable for any shortfall in the overall annual tax payments. Another was to cut the loyalty-buying subsidies paid to tribes north of the Danube. This latter move was undoubtedly less than wise.

Decentralization

Philip realized that running a huge empire from Rome created many strains and pressures on the administration, and it was not possible for one man to be able to make all the major decisions. He therefore appointed men who were – in effect – deputy emperors in the regions. The first of these deputies were family members, including his brother Julius Priscus in the eastern empire.

The empire had had joint emperors in the past, but this was really the first experiment in regional devolution. Later emperors would take this process even further, leading eventually to the split of the Roman Empire into virtually independent eastern and western empires.

Threats, both external and internal

Although Philip had bought off the Persians for time being, trouble from external enemies was never far away. The Alemanni made an incursion across the Rhine, and the Carpi and Goths were constantly making life difficult in the Danube region, especially after Philip’s subsidy cuts mentioned above.

Philip also faced challenges from a whole string of would-be emperors who gained support in various parts of the Empire. These all had to be dealt with in turn.

Philip’s undoing came from one such challenger, Gaius Messius Quintus Decius, who had been sent to deal with the trouble on the Danube. After successfully doing so, Decius was persuaded by his troops to declare himself emperor and march on Rome.

Battle was joined near Verona in September 249 when Philip was killed and Decius took over.

Suggestions were made in later centuries that Philip was the first Christian emperor, although if that was the case he did little to advertise the fact. However, the later actions of Decius to reinforce the worship of pagan gods may just possibly have been a response to what he saw as a dangerous tendency by Philip to tolerate a new religion.

© John Welford

Gordian III, Emperor of Rome

Gordian III became Emperor of Rome in the year 238, when aged only 13. This was during a particularly chaotic period of Roman history when being emperor virtually guaranteed a violent death, and Gordian was not an exception to that rule.

Marcus Antonius Gordianus was born on 20^th January 225. His father was a Roman senator and his mother was the daughter of Emperor Gordian I, who chose to reign jointly with his son (Gordian III’s maternal uncle) who is known as Gordian II. 

The elder Gordians did not last long, dying in battle and by suicide in April 238, and only held their titles courtesy of the Senate, who preferred them to the appalling (in their eyes) Maximinus Thrax. The Senate then chose to appoint, as joint emperors, Pupienus and Balbinus, who decided to give themselves some extra legitimacy by taking young Gordian on board as their heir. This move failed to prevent Pupienus and Balbinus from meeting violent ends at the hands of the Praetorian Guard, which left Gordian as the new emperor.

Rome had had very young emperors before, notably Elagabalus and his cousin Alexander Severus (who was probably only 11 when he ascended the throne), and it was therefore expected that Gordian would have the backing of someone who was the real power behind the throne. This was Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus, who held the office of Praetorian Prefect. His link to Gordian was strengthened when the latter married Tranquilliana, the former’s daughter.

The chief problem facing the new regime was incursions by various tribes into Roman territory. An immediate threat was posed by Goths who raided across the Danube and attacked several towns on the coast of the Black Sea. These were twice driven back by Timesitheus, first in 238 and again early in 242.

Later in 242, Gordian accompanied Timesitheus in a mission to confront the growing Sassanid Empire in what is now Iran and northern Iraq. This campaign was eventually successful, with the forces of the Sassanid King Shapur being driven back across the Euphrates and defeated at the Battle of Resaena in 243.

However, Timesitheus died of disease soon after the battle and was succeeded by Julius Priscus, who co-opted his brother, Marcus Julius Philippus, to share the office of prefect with him. 

Gordian, now aged 18, no longer had his father-in-law to guide him and presumably thought that it was his responsibility to make the decisions that determined the future of the empire. It might, however, have been the case that the advice he got from Priscus and Philippus was not as wise as that he had received from Timesitheus. Whatever the reason, Gordian’s next move was not a good one.

He decided on a winter advance into what is now Iraq but got no further than the town of Dura Europos, which overlooks the River Euphrates near what is now the border between Iraq and Syria. The Roman army was preparing to advance across the river when Shapur struck and inflicted a severe defeat on them. 

Not long after this Gordian was murdered in his camp, possibly on the orders of Phillipus, who now became the new emperor, known to history as Philip the Arab. 

Gordian died on 11th February 244, aged 19.

© John Welford

238 AD: The Year of Six Emperors

(Gordian I)

The year 69 AD is well known to historians as the “Year of Four Emperors” (Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian), and that 193 AD could be said to have had five (Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus and two other claimants) but Rome also had a “Year of Six Emperors”, this being 238 AD. Given that the first of the six (Maximinus Thrax) ended his reign in April of that year, and the last of them (Gordian III) began his in July, it might be more accurate to talk about the “Four Months of Six Emperors”.

It should also be obvious that this was a particularly chaotic and confusing period of Roman history, and that the claims of some of the six to be considered emperors at all could be called into question. Here is a summary of the lives and reigns of the four claimants who formed the meat of the imperial sandwich in that year.

Gordian I and Gordian II

Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus was probably born in 159, so by the year 238 he was a very old man of nearly 80. His parentage is unknown, but he appears to have come from aristocratic stock and had become a senator and proconsul of Africa by the time that he was persuaded, in March 238, to assume the title of emperor in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Maximinus Thrax who, as a former shepherd, was far from being a member the senatorial class.

Gordian accepted the title on condition that it could be shared with his son, who is therefore known to history as Gordian II. The younger Gordian, who was probably born in 192, was known to enjoy a luxurious and lascivious lifestyle. It was said that he had 22 concubines and fathered three or four children with each of them.

(Gordian II)

However, the Gordians were not accepted universally as rightful joint emperors. In particular, Capelianus, the governor of Numidia, was a loyal supporter of Maximinus and held a personal grudge against the older Gordian. He had command of a legion that he brought to battle against the Gordians at Carthage on 12^th April. The result was decisive, with Gordian II being killed and Gordian I hanging himself out of grief at losing his son.

Pupienus and Balbinus

(Pupienus)

These two shadowy figures became the Senate’s Plan B after the Gordians were killed. Marcus Clodius Pupienus was a distinguished soldier, who was probably born around 178. Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus, age unknown, appears to have been a high-born socialite who enjoyed an easy-going lifestyle.

The pair therefore bore some similarities to the Gordians whom they replaced as the Senate’s choice as joint emperors to mount a robust defence against Maximinus, who was on his way from the Balkans to Italy in a bid to defend his throne. However, the people of Rome were not convinced that the Senate had made the right move, so Pupienus and Balbinus jointly adopted as their heir a young nephew of Gordian II.

(Balbinus)

Pupienus and Balbinus began their joint reign on 22^nd April. However, they did not last long in office, despite the ease with which their main objective – defeating the threat posed by Maximinus – was achieved. He got no closer to Rome than the city of Aquileia (between Trieste and Venice) before falling victim to his own soldiers, but Pupienus and Balbinus proved to be no more popular with the army, or at least the Praetorian Guard, who kidnapped and murdered them on 29^th July.

The soldiers’ preference was to be ruled, once again, by a boy emperor, namely 13-year-old Gordian III.

© John Welford

Maximinus Thrax, Emperor of Rome

It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast between successive emperors than when Maximinus Thrax (meaning Thracian) seized the imperial throne from Alexander Severus. The “mummy’s boy”, killed along with his mother on the orders of Maximinus, was succeeded by a former shepherd from Thrace (modern northern Greece and southern Bulgaria) who was a giant of a man reputed to have been eight feet tall and extremely sweaty.

Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus sounds like the sort of name that would be borne by a Roman of noble birth, but its holder was widely regarded as being a semi-barbarian who could hardly speak Latin. He was born in the year 173, or thereabouts, and had only the most basic education. As he continued to grow to his full height he became used to settling disputes with his fists rather than argument.

He joined the army and rose rapidly through the ranks. He attracted the notice of emperor Alexander Severus and was put in charge of training recruits. One has to assume that being a trainee under Maximinus would not have been a particularly pleasant experience.

Another assumption must be that Maximinus had a very low opinion of the emperor in question, which is why it should not come as a surprise to learn that the mutiny that led to Alexander’s death in 235 was led by the giant from Thrace. After initial reluctance he accepted the army’s endorsement as the next emperor.

Emperor Maximinus

Alexander Severus had been reluctant to take military action against the German tribes that were threatening the empire’s northern borders, preferring to buy them off rather than attack them. Maximinus had no such qualms and promptly launched a campaign against the Alemanni across the River Rhine. He also kept a close eye on the Dacians and Sarmatians and made ready to respond with force if they made further trouble.

However, these moves had consequences that would eventually lead to the new emperor’s undoing. Military activity costs money, especially when army pay is increased and taxes are raised to foot the bill. One way that Maximinus raised money was to cut subsidies on grain supplies, which was bound to make him unpopular with the general populace.

Maximinus was a Roman emperor who never set foot in Rome. He was therefore always going to face opposition from the aristocratic members of the Senate who resented being led by a foreign upstart whom they had never seen.

The revolt of the Senate

In 238 the Senate took their opportunity when an elderly senator named Gordian declared himself to be emperor, ruling jointly with his son, also named Gordian, in North Africa. The Gordians did not last long, being killed by the governor of Numidia who was a supporter of Maximinus.

The Senate clearly needed a Plan B, and they came up with two imperial candidates, Pupienus and Balbinus, who would rule jointly. They included a third Gordian, the 13-year-old nephew of the second Gordian, as part of an imperial college.

Maximinus, officially deposed by the Senate, was hardly to going to take things lying down. He marched on Rome, accompanied by his son whom he had named as his successor. However, he now became the victim of munity in his turn. This happened after his army failed to capture the city of Aquilea and three weeks passed while the provisions ran steadily lower.

There are various accounts of how the end came for Maximinus. One version has the soldiers murdering Maximinus’s son and heir after which Maximinus took his own life. Another says that both father and son were killed together and their heads stuck on poles.

Whatever the truth of the matter, the reign of Maximinus Thrax was neither long nor distinguished. He deserves his place in history for being the first of the six men who held the title of emperor during the year 238.

© John Welford

Alexander Severus, Emperor of Rome

Alexander Severus (who is also referred to as Severus Alexander) became Rome’s emperor when possibly aged only 11. To begin with he was only a figurehead for his dominating mother, and even in adulthood he found it impossible to assert his own authority.

It is not known exactly when Alexander was born – sources differ between 211 and 209 – but his birthplace was Arca Caesarea in Judea. Little is known about his father, Gessius Marcianus, but his mother was to play a much more important role in his life and that of the Empire.

Julia Mamaea was the sister of Julia Soaemias, who was the mother of Emperor Elagabalus, and the two Julias were the daughters of Julia Maesa, who was the sister-in-law of Emperor Septimius Severus and the aunt of Emperor Caracalla. The three Julias were determined to preserve the power of the Severan clan for as long as they could, although they had their own ideas about how this should be done.

Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea used their sons as levers to gain power for themselves, but this led to a sibling rivalry that took a violent turn when the bizarre behaviour of Elagabalus made many Romans think that Alexander, despite his youth, would have been a better holder of the office. Elagabalus, backed by his mother, tried to engineer the murder of Alexander but the plan backfired when he was the one who ended up as the murder victim, together with his mother.

The death of Elagabalus in 222 brought Alexander Severus to the throne, with the real power being wielded by the two surviving Julias, mother and daughter. When the elder Julia died in 223 or 224, this left Julia Mamaea in effective sole charge of the Empire. She gave herself some very exalted titles, including “Mother of the Whole Human Race”.

Nobody was left in any doubt as to who was in charge. A marriage was arranged for Alexander, his bride being a high-born Roman girl named Sallustia Barbia Orbiana. However, Julia soon came to see her as a threat to her own position, and her reaction took the form of insults directed at Orbiana’s father, Lucius Seius Sallustius. He took refuge in the camp of the Praetorian Guard, but that smacked of treason to Julia. She promptly had Sallustius executed and Orbiana banished.

However, despite her murderous jealousy and utter domination of her son, Julia Mamaea did not do a bad job as far as running the machinery of government was concerned. She was tolerant in matters of religion, encouraged building projects that improved the city’s facilities, and promoted cultural activities throughout the Empire.

Things were not so rosy on the eastern borders. In 225 a new threat arose in the shape of Ardashir, a ruthless warrior prince who overthrew the king of Parthia (in what is roughly modern Iran) and founded a new regime that is generally known as the Sassanid dynasty. Ardashir sought to restore the might of ancient Persia, which meant conquering Rome’s possessions in the region. 

It was some time before the threat was recognized for what it was, but eventually (in 230) Alexander and his mother headed east at the head of an army. They had first to deal with a mutiny in Egypt, but were then able to launch an assault on Sassanid positions in Mesopotamia. The campaign was far from decisive, due largely to poor tactics, but at least it led to Ardashir’s temporary withdrawal and enabled Alexander to return to Rome and celebrate a triumph of sorts.

The next challenge came from Germany. Alexander and Julia Mamaea set off in 234 and based themselves at Mainz, from where they hoped to advance across the Rhine to counter the troublesome German tribes on the other side. However, Alexander then decided to buy the Germans off rather than fight them. 

This did not go down well with the troops, who were generally unhappy about the weak leadership being shown by their mummy’s-boy emperor. Instead they chose a new candidate for emperor, this being a rough-hewn former shepherd from Thrace (northern Greece) named Maximinus.  

When it became clear to Alexander that this mutiny would succeed he threw a teenage tantrum (despite now being 26 years old), condemned Maximinus for his disloyalty and blamed his mother for getting him into this mess. It did him no good – as soon as Maximinus’s men arrived at his camp they murdered both Alexander and Julia Mamaea. This happened in March 235 and marked the end of the Severan dynasty.

However, the reign of Maximinus has been seen by some historians as the beginning of fifty years of crisis and chaos.

© John Welford